We are not stripping authorization headers on the server.
A quick search for the error message shows a large number of different possible reasons for this issue.
Unfortunately, the overwhelming majority of posts are unanswered or just have extremely generic recommendations making it hard to say something useful about why it breaks.
I do have a slight hunch though that this issue may be caused by this security system, which would block access from WooCommerce to our hosting. But the error message is too vague to say for certain.